The research on which this report and the accompanying policy brief are based was carried out in late 2019 and early 2020, before the outbreak of COVID-19. An update on the impact of the pandemic is being released alongside these two publications. ; Published in July 2020 ; Along the lines of the first exhaustive report entitled ‘Is Italian Agriculture a “Pull Factor” for Irregular Migration – And, If So, Why?’ (2018), this new report, commissioned by the Open Society European Policy Institute (OSEPI) and drafted by a team of researchers coordinated by the Migration Policy Centre at the European University Institute (EUI), focuses on the agri-food systems in Northern European Union member states – Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden – seeking to unpack the interplay of factors underlying or contributing to the demand for low-paid, flexible and exploitative labour in this sector. These factors include the impacts of: EU and national policies on labour mobility, migration and asylum; supply chain dynamics; labour market policies; the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and national policies on agriculture and rural development; policies to fight and prevent trafficking and labour exploitation; and additional drivers identified in the different countries. The study shows that most abusive and exploitative labour practices in the agri-food system in these countries take place in a ‘grey zone’ through gaps and shortcomings in the legal framework. In this scenario, highly flexible labour market dynamics and practices, in particular indirect employment through agencies, play a crucial role, providing workers with staggered economic and social entitlements. The report also reviews relevant good practices which have the potential to be scaled up to the EU level. ; p. 2 "Introduction"; p. 3 "Aim of the study and methodology"; p. 4 "Germany"; p. 13 The Netherlands; p. 22 "Sweden"; p. 30 "Concluding remarks"; p. 36 "Annex 1"; p. 37 "Annex 2"; p. 38 "Annex 3"; p. 39 "Endnotes"