Bidirectional associations between educational level and alcohol use in the TRAILS Study (the Netherlands, 2000–2017, N = 2,229); linear regression coefficients (stdyx-standardized ß-coefficient, robust standard error, p-value) from cross-lagged panel models without (Model 1 and 2) and with fixed effects (Model 3).

Model 1: bivariate cross-lagged panel model. Model 2: cross-lagged panel model adjusted for age, gender, area of residence, ethnicity, parental socioeconomic status, IQ, and effortful control at baseline (wave 1). Model 3: cross-lagged panel models with fixed effects–adjustment for time-invariant characteristics was performed by inclusion of a latent variable. Edu = educational level; Alc = alcohol use. Boldface denotes statistical significance at p < 0.05.