Bidirectional associations between educational level and alcohol use in the TRAILS Study (the Netherlands, 2000–2017, N = 2,229); sequentially adjusted linear regression coefficients (stdyx-standardized ß-coefficient, robust standard error, p-value) for different sets of covariates.

Model 1: bivariate cross-lagged panel model. Model 2: cross-lagged panel model adjusted for demographics (age, gender, area of residence, and ethnicity). Model 3: cross-lagged panel model adjusted for demographics, and parental socioeconomic status. Model 4: cross-lagged panel model adjusted for demographics, parental socioeconomic status, and adolescent psychological characteristics (IQ, effortful control). Edu = educational level; Alc = alcohol use. Boldface denotes statistical significance at p < 0.05. (PDF)